TapFin, an integrated sustainability tech platform, announced the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the EV Powertrain Lab at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay). The collaborative efforts will focus on addressing the challenges in EV financing and bridging the gap with innovative solutions that make electric vehicle ownership more accessible and discover more commercially viable and sustainable use cases for the deployment of electric vehicles.
With this partnership, TapFin and IIT Bombay aim to create a vibrant ecosystem that bridges the gap between academia and industry by driving knowledge exchange, research collaboration, and the development of industry-relevant skills.
Under the MoU, TapFin and IIT Bombay will collaborate on joint research and knowledge exchange in the electric vehicle ecosystem, focusing on creating industry-ready solutions. The partnership will enable students from IIT Bombay with an increased exposure to industry trends and challenges, helping students and researchers work on real-world projects that align with industry needs. TapFin, on the other hand, will leverage IIT Bombay’s academic expertise to further its innovations and propositions for business participants in the electric vehicle space. TapFin will also participate in IIT Bombay’s annual EV Career Day, providing students with exposure to real-world industry challenges and recruitment opportunities.
Talking to Bizz Buzz, Aditya Singh, Co-Founder & CEO of TapFin said: “We’re excited to join hands with IIT Bombay’s EV Powertrain Lab! This MoU is a big step forward in our mission to drive innovation in green mobility. With the incredible talent at IIT Bombay, we’re eager to push the limits of EV technology and bring real-world solutions to life’.”
By tapping into the brilliant minds at IIT Bombay, we look forward to pushing the boundaries of EV technology and creating solutions that have a real-world impact, he added.
“The partnership with TapFin aligns with our mission to strengthen collaboration between academia and industry. The EV Lab is excited to work with TapFin to develop industry-focused research and solutions that will shape the future of electric mobility,” said Prof Sandeep Anand, IIT Bombay.
New Delhi, Oct 18: India has surpassed China to become the largest two-wheeler market in the world, driven by rising demand in rural areas, supported by favourable monsoon conditions and government initiatives for rural development, a report showed on Friday.
Globally, two-wheeler sales grew 4 per cent (year-on-year) in the first half of 2024, according to Counterpoint Research.
Although India, Europe, North America, Latin America, and the Middle East and Africa saw growth, China and Southeast Asia (SEA) experienced a decline.
Senior analyst Soumen Mandal said that India’s two-wheeler market saw a remarkable 22 per cent YoY growth in the first half this year.
“This strong performance allowed India to surpass China and become the world’s largest two-wheeler market,” he mentioned.
Two-wheelers saw strong double-digit growth (year-on-year) in the second quarter of this fiscal in India.
In China, two-wheelers under 125cc remain popular, but consumers are increasingly opting for e-bicycles over motorcycles and scooters for daily commuting. This shift has led to a temporary slowdown in the Chinese two-wheeler market, particularly in the electric segment.
In South East Asia, major markets such as Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, and Malaysia saw a decline in two-wheeler sales due to geopolitical trade tensions, stricter lending criteria, and cautious consumer spending amid economic uncertainty.
The top-10 global two-wheeler manufacturers captured over 75 per cent of sales during H1 2024.
Honda maintained its leading position in the global two-wheeler market, followed by Hero MotoCorp, Yamaha, TVS Motor and Yadea.
TVS Motor was the fastest-growing brand (up 25 per cent YoY) among the top-10 brands while Yadea declined the most (down 29 per cent YoY), slipping to fifth position.
Neil Shah, Vice President of Research, said that electrification is on the rise, and by 2030, we expect four out of 10 two-wheelers sold to be electric.
“This shift is also accelerating the adoption of embedded cellular connectivity in the two-wheeler segment. As the automotive industry advances toward C-V2X technology, the two-wheeler segment will follow suit,” he noted.
The Ministry of Power issued the latest guidelines for EV Charging Infrastructure on Sep 17, 2024. The new guidelines received a mixed reception from Charge Point Operators (CPOs). On the positive side, the government has acknowledged various challenges repeatedly raised by industry. However, despite these improvements, there are still gaps in the guidelines that must be addressed to create a fair and competitive environment for private CPOs and establish a thriving ecosystem.
The Indian Charge Point Operators Association — comprising seven members, Jio BP, ChargeZone, Zeon, EVRE, GLIDA, and two manufacturers, Ador and Mindra — has been sharing its recommendations with the Ministry of Power and the Bureau of Energy Efficiency to present the industry perspective while the guidelines were being prepared.
Mr Awadhesh Jha from GLIDA, who is also Chairman of the Indian Charge Point Operators Association (ICPOA), shares the association’s feedback on the published guidelines from the perspective of public charging infrastructure for electric cars.
The latest guidelines released by the Ministry of Power are a step in the right direction as they aim to establish the infrastructure necessary for widespread electric vehicle adoption. While these new guidelines have made some directional improvements, they also add significant implementation challenges on the ground.
LT Capacity
One positive aspect of the recent guidelines is the recommendation to increase the LT (Low Tension) threshold across the country to 150 kilowatts. It is a favourable move for developing public charging infrastructure; however, how this will be implemented remains uncertain, as this decision lies with individual regulators. The feasibility of changing the entire electrical infrastructure across the country to accommodate this increase would be challenging, but as CPOs, we view the 150-kilowatt recommendation positively, as it can support 2 to 3 fast chargers at one location, which would ease charging by end users.
Charging Locations
State PSUs, Central PSUs, or state agencies can acquire locations from municipal corporations or other landowning govt agencies at a flat ₹1 per kWh revenue share without going through a tender process. The guidelines for private operators mandate that such public locations can be made available to private CPOs through competitive bidding where ₹1 per kWh is a floor price for revenue share and the highest bidding CPO would get access to these locations. As an association, we are fine with these modalities, as we fully understand that government resources cannot be allocated to private entities without a fair and competitive bidding process.
However, why treat state agencies preferably for securing locations that are critical for developing widespread public charging? We observe that many of the agencies who get access to such public spaces on a preferential basis do not invest in developing the charging stations themselves; rather, they further tender out to “offer right to use” such locations by asking for additional revenue to be shared with them. This distorts the entire ecosystem without adding any value to end users.
We suggest bidding should be mandatory for all, including central government agencies, to create a level playing field.
Electricity Connections
The new guidelines specify timelines—3 days, 7 days, 15 days—for providing connections.
For effective implementation of these timelines, the Ministry of Power should facilitate discussions between CPOs and the Forum of Regulators. This forum includes all state regulators and the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC), and they collaborate to develop a common regulatory framework. Without such coordination, states may continue to have varying guidelines and policies, as electricity is a concurrent subject.
The Forum of Regulators should engage with CPOs directly. There should be an open and free-flowing discussion between CPOs and the Forum of Regulators because CPOs are the recipients of the services, while they are the custodians of offering these services through distribution companies. More engagement between the CPOs and the Forum of Regulators would bring in perspectives that regulators might be missing.
Charges and Service Fee Cap
We do not support regulating the service fee cap. It should be left to the market, which would take care of the price. The government’s involvement in capping service fees may not be necessary, as the market is already functioning with a reasonable range of prices, from ₹6 to ₹20 per kWh, based on location and service quality. There’s no need for regulatory interference, as customers naturally gravitate towards services that meet their needs.
Further, the new guidelines have three elements: a Service fee cap for recovering capital costs, Electricity as a pass-through, and land cost as a pass-through. Even though the intent is positive, this introduces unnecessary complications. The guidelines do not clarify how to standardise land costs across different locations with varying utilization rates, leading to a per-kWh rate that changes based on site-specific factors. Additionally, every state might interpret these guidelines differently, creating inconsistencies that charge point operators (CPOs) will have to navigate.
For example, how will the land cost be converted into a per-kWh charge and passed on to the customer? Different locations will have varying utilisation levels, which are known only after the designated period. Not only will the per-kWh rate differ based on how much a location is used, but it is difficult to recover from the end user as the market has moved to a pre-paid model.
Another challenge arises in administering the fixed demand charges of electricity. For instance, if a CPO in Bangalore has a 100-kilowatt connection and pays a monthly fixed fee, how will this cost be passed to customers when usage fluctuates monthly? Unlike variable energy costs, fixed costs are harder to recover. A reconciliation at the end of the year isn’t practical, as customers charge and leave, making it difficult to recoup these expenses. This needs deeper engagement among Discom, CPOs, and regulators to arrive at the right modalities.
Furthermore, the service fee cap, set at ₹11 and ₹13 for solar and non-solar setups, lacks clarity on its applicability. A high-end charger capable of dispensing 25 to 160 kW costs more, but the fee is capped at ₹11 or ₹13; the CPO has no incentive to deploy advanced technology or set up infrastructure in remote areas.
Overall, capping the service fee is neither practicable nor desirable in developing a robust charging infrastructure.
DISCOMs as Nodal Agencies
The guidelines mention that DISCOMs could be nodal agencies, which raises a conflict of interest. In some states, DISCOMs are also CPOs, which not only provide electricity connections but also set up charging infrastructure. Allowing a DISCOM to act as a CPO and a nodal agency within its jurisdiction creates an unfair advantage, as they control the connections and locations. We believe DISCOMs should not operate as CPOs within their licensing areas.
Open Access and Renewable Energy
Open access regulations, though useful, pose issues for public charging stations. Predicting energy usage for the next day in 15-minute blocks is nearly impossible due to the unpredictability of vehicles. Predicting the number of vehicles and the capacity getting utilised on a day-ahead basis would be challenging for public charging stations. Consequently, open access with a scheduling requirement is not feasible. A significant penalty is incurred under the Demand Settlement Mechanism (DSM) if a schedule is submitted and unmet.
The current open access framework allows a one-month banking period. Extending this banking period to one year for EV charging could provide considerable benefits. While we have not conducted a detailed analysis on the impact of a one-year banking period, we are confident that, given the increasing adoption of vehicles, a CPO could minimise the effects of the DSM within that time frame. If this change is implemented, open access could become highly beneficial.
However, without such a change, there are still opportunities to enhance the charging experience. For example, many DISCOMs have introduced the green tariff concept, allowing regular EV connections to be converted to green tariffs. Although this may involve a slightly higher fee, it enables users to claim that they are using completely green energy, positively influencing their driving experience. This initiative also aids discounts in procuring more renewable energy, even without specific obligations, thus helping to build a consumer base.
Summary
To implement these guidelines effectively, the Ministry of Power, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, or any DISCOMs could facilitate interactions between CPOs and regulators. This would be a significant step forward, ensuring that these guidelines do not remain merely theoretical.
Hyderabad: Maruti Suzuki India Limited (MSIL) announced the crossing of the 1 crore cumulative production milestone at its Manesar facility. With this, the Manesar facility became the fastest among Suzuki’s global automobile manufacturing facilities, to reach the milestone in just 18 years.
On attaining the milestone, Hisashi Takeuchi, Managing Director & CEO, Maruti Suzuki India Limited said, “As we reach this important landmark, I thank our customers for placing their trust in us. I also thank all our employees, business associates and Government of India for their continued support.”
He added, “Crossing the 1 crore cumulative production mark at our Manesar facility is a testament to India’s manufacturing capability and our commitment to the larger national goal of ‘Make in India’. With a strong focus on local manufacturing of components, since inception, the company has been able to establish a vast supply chain in India. Through our large-scale manufacturing facilities, we have been able to provide direct and indirect employment to millions of people. Along with our supply chain partners, we will continue to contribute to making automobile industry in India self-reliant and globally competitive.”
Spread over 600 acres, the Manesar facility began operations in October 2006. The Company manufactures Brezza, Ertiga, XL6, Ciaz, Dzire, Wagon R, S-Presso and Celerio at this facility. These models are sold in the domestic market and are exported to regions like Latin America, Middle East, Africa, and neighboring countries in Asia. Maruti Suzuki’s first passenger car to be exported to Japan, the Baleno, was also manufactured at this facility.
Maruti Suzuki’s overall production capability stands at about 2.35 million units per annum. Since inception, the company has produced over 3.11 crore vehicles.
Hyderabad: Hyundai Motor India Limited (HMIL), sets in motion a brand-new campaign for its Dual Cylinder CNG technology – “Space Bhi. Mileage Bhi.” Strengthening its commitment to innovation and providing sustainable mobility solutions, HMIL recently launched the EXTER and Grand i10 NIOS Hy-CNG Duo, keeping in mind the evolving travel needs of the customers. The brand campaign has been conceptualised to highlight the convenience of Hy-CNG Duo technology with the benefits of expansive boot space and great fuel efficiency.
Renowned for its innovative marketing strategies and customer-centric approach, HMIL, with the Hy-CNG Duo brand campaign, has strived to struck chords with the audience by highlighting the Dual Cylinder CNG technology and its benefits to the audience. The campaign invites audience into a world which is engaging and aspirational while showcasing Hy-CNG Duo’s practicality and how its USPs resolve issues and biases that are usually accompanied with CNG vehicles.
Sharing his insights about the campaign, Tarun Garg, Whole Time Director & Chief Operating Officer, Hyundai Motor India Limited, said, “As a brand committed to delivering innovative and sustainable mobility solutions, we are thrilled to see the growing contribution of our CNG-powered vehicles, which accounted for 13 per cent of our total sales in September 2024. The introduction of Hy-CNG dual-cylinder technology has received very positive customer feedback, with the CNG powertrain’s contribution in the EXTER and Grand i10 NIOS rising to 25 per cent and 20 per cent respectively. Our latest campaign for the Hy-CNG Duo technology in the EXTER and Grand i10 NIOS highlights the blend of convenience and fuel efficiency that our customers seek. With spacious interiors and advanced technology, these vehicles offer a great driving experience. We shall strive to meet the evolving needs of our customers with eco-friendly, high-performance solutions.”
The TVC film exemplifies a unique yet relatable storyline, with a common central character who incapsulates the spirit and features of EXTER Hy-CNG Duo in a convincing yet entertaining manner. With a simple context of a marriage in an Indian family, the TVC further highlights how carrying luggage is made easy with the help of massive boot space in the EXTER Hy-CNG Duo along with its fuel efficiency. The campaign truly delivers the key messaging of “Space Bhi. Mileage Bhi.” ensuring a lasting impression on viewers.
This multi-channel campaign will be promoted across digital, and social media channels, including YouTube, Facebook, and Instagram. Designed to boost website visits and video views, the campaign will utilize programmatic platforms to reach in-market of auto enthusiasts, family-focused individuals, and travel affinity audiences.
The EXTER & Grand i10 NIOS Hy-CNG Duo are powered by 1.2 l Bi-Fuel (Petrol with CNG) engine paired with 5 Speed Manual Transmission delivering a mileage of 27.1 km/kg and 26.9 km/kg respectively (ARAI Tested). Ensuring maximum safety to the customers, the vehicles come equipped with a company fitted CNG system which is strategically placed under the luggage board, bringing out the practical usage of the boot space and sufficing the travel needs of the customers.
Stride Green, an asset finance and management platform located in Delhi NCR, supports businesses in India’s electric vehicle (EV) ecosystem and is expanding to other climate-related sectors such as renewable energy, green hydrogen, waste management, and circular economy solutions. Over the next 18 to 24 months, Stride Green aims to facilitate asset financing of up to $500 million as part of its efforts to support India’s green transition.
In its first six months of operation, the platform has helped reduce 312,000 kilograms of CO2, facilitated over 10 million green kilometers, and achieved an environmental impact equivalent to planting more than 13,000 trees. Stride Green works with original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) like TATA, Switch Mobility, Bajaj, Mahindra, Euler, Omega Seiki, Ola Electric, and Zen Mobility, providing electric vehicle financing to fleet operators and drivers. The platform has also collaborated with companies such as Zomato, Swiggy, Amazon, Flipkart, and Porter to advance green mobility initiatives.
Stride Green’s Asset Lifecycle Management Platform links stakeholders—including OEMs, lenders, maintenance providers, and recycling partners—to promote sustainable management throughout the asset lifecycle. To date, the platform has financed over 1,500 electric vehicles and hyperchargers and has partnered with LOHUM to evaluate the residual value of batteries at the end of their first life cycle.
According to Mr Ishpreet Singh Gandhi, Group CEO, Stride, “At Stride Green, we’re not just financing assets—we’re empowering a sustainable shift in India’s business ecosystem through holistic tech-enabled financing.”
Vivek Jain, Co-Founder & CBO, Stride Green said “In a short span of time, Stride Green has achieved industry-first growth, proving that new-age innovative eco-conscious businesses are in great need of tech-enabled financing solutions. Our in-house technology and financial expertise are allowing us to create bespoke solutions that can address any kind of financial need for all types of eco-conscious businesses.”
Hyderabad: India Yamaha Motor (IYM) has achieved a significant milestone by establishing 400 Blue Square showrooms nationwide, adding 100 new outlets in just the past six months. This rapid expansion underscores Yamaha’s ongoing commitment to delivering an unmatched customer-centric experience. By bringing its premium two-wheeler offerings closer to customers, particularly in India’s rapidly growing tier-2 and tier-3 cities, Yamaha is catering to the rising aspirations of its consumers across the country.
Since the launch of ‘The Call of The Blue’ brand campaign in 2018, Yamaha has focused on bringing its premium offerings closer to customers and building stronger connections. The introduction of Blue Square showrooms in 2019 has been instrumental in creating an exclusive environment that reflects Yamaha’s racing DNA and caters to the growing demand for performance-oriented products.
Commenting on this achievement, Eishin Chihana, Chairman, Yamaha Motor India Group of Companies, said, “Crossing the milestone of 400 Blue Square showrooms reflects our continuous effort to be closer to our customers, especially in India’s fast-growing tier-2 and tier-3 cities. We recognize the growing aspirations of customers across the country, and we are here to cater to those ambitions by offering a premium, personalised experience through our Blue Square outlets. These spaces are not just retail touchpoints—they are where customers can truly immerse themselves in the Yamaha world and explore our products in an environment designed for them. We extend our heartfelt thanks to our dealer partners and customers for their continued trust and support in achieving this milestone.”
The design of Blue Square showrooms caters to the evolving needs and aspirations of today’s discerning customers. With dedicated zones for accessories, merchandise, and community engagement, these showrooms embody Yamaha’s philosophy of innovation, sportiness, and style. Each outlet serves as a hub for Yamaha’s ‘Blue Streaks’ rider community, enabling customers to participate in group rides and build connections with fellow enthusiasts.
The Blue Square network houses Yamaha’s most exciting products, including the track-oriented R3, street fighter MT-03, and the maxi-sport AEROX 155 scooter, alongside models equipped with advanced features like Traction Control System (TCS). Customers can also explore a range of other motorcycles and scooters, including the YZF-R15 V4, MT-15 V2, FZ-X, Fascino 125 FI Hybrid, and Ray ZR Street Rally 125 FI Hybrid, all designed to offer a thrilling riding experience with superior performance.
With 400 operational Blue Square outlets across India, Yamaha continues to expand its footprint, ensuring that more customers, especially in emerging regions, have access to its premium products and services.
Automotive consultant and subject matter expert Mr Prabhat Khare writes about automotive tyres, their many types, and technological upgrades over the years and their lifecycle.
Once, when Shambhasur attacked the heavens, Raja Dashrath was called upon to join the army of Indra, the Lord of Heavens, to allay the attack. Rani Kaikeyi, too, accompanied him. During the war, the axle of the chariot’s wheel broke when Rani Kaikeyi was supposed to have used her finger for the axle till the battle was over. Overwhelmed with gratitude for her timely help, the king bestowed two boons on her. Later, these two boons formed the basis of Ramayana. – From Valmiki Ramayana
Background
The pneumatic tyre is one of human history’s most intricate and vital inventions. Despite its outward simplicity, it’s a marvel of engineering that often goes unnoticed in our daily lives. Without tyres, we would still rely on cumbersome wooden or metal wheels, making modern vehicles like cars, trucks, motorcycles, and bicycles impossible. The world as we know it owes much to the invention of rubber tyres, which have revolutionized travel and transformed global connectivity. Scotsman John Boyd Dunlop created the first practical pneumatic tyres for his son’s bicycle, addressing his son’s discomfort while riding on rough roads. One of the key advantages of pneumatic tyres is their ability to reduce rolling resistance. Unlike solid tyres, internal air pressure allows these tyres to absorb bumps in the road without creating a reactive force. This difference in rolling resistance is easily felt when using wheelchairs or baby buggies equipped with either type. Modern pneumatic tyres are composed of strong, lightweight polymer fibres bonded within a matrix of viscoelastic rubbers. Specialized adhesives combine various components into a lightweight, doughnut-shaped structure called the carcass, with a rubber tread bonded to its outer edge for traction. Radial tyres feature reinforcing belts made of polymer threads or steel wire, while a thin sidewall connects the tread to the steel cables in the bead area, securing the tyre to the wheel. Ultimately, the pneumatic tyre is a durable, cost-effective innovation that enables fast and safe personal transportation, fostering travel independence and a robust network for overland freight delivery.
Basic Theory of The Pneumatic Tires
Historically, with the rise of automobiles in the early 20th century, all sorts and kinds of carriage springs were adopted for travel comforts. Still, most of them were rejected, and on the way to the evolution of wheels, the endless iron hoop that bound the wooden wheels had slowly given way to the rubber tyres, solid, cushion, and pneumatic. The demand for greater speed and comfort in vehicular travel was the need which brought out the pneumatic tyres and provided much greater comfort to the passengers, minimizing vibrations & which was rightly termed as a vibration annihilator. For example, when a pebble or small stone lies in the path of a vehicle whose wheel tyres are of metal, the entire weight of the wheel has to be lifted over the stone at a great expenditure of motive power and at the price of discomfort. When solid or cushion rubber tyres encounter the same obstacle, the elasticity of the rubber determines the conditions governing loss of force, discomfort, etc. Still, when the pneumatic tyres pass over the obstruction, the energy loss and unpleasant vibration can be reduced to a minimum. It simply means that the displacement of the compressed air, for instance, the combined elasticity of the air and the thin covering of rubber, makes this possible. The greater the speed, too, the greater the ease with which the obstruction is overcome. The only disadvantage of a closed rubber tube (tyre) filled with pressurized air, allowing it to overcome any shock, vibration, or jerks while moving on the road, is that it is liable to puncture.
Functions Of Tires
Vehicle-Road Interface: The primary role of passenger vehicle tyres is to connect the vehicle to the road. The contact area of all four tyres on a typical mid-size vehicle is smaller than 600 cm2(approximately 21.6 cm x 27.9 cm), with each tyre having a footprint roughly the size of an average hand. Despite this small contact patch, we rely on these tyres to ensure safe navigation on sharp turns at exit ramps and smooth handling over any terrain & in any weather conditions.
Load Support: Tyres are engineered to support a vehicle’s weight, causing them to deform until the internal air pressure balances the load pressure. For example, a standard passenger tyre inflated to 2.45 kg/ cm2 would need an average contact area of about 645 cm2 to support a 160 kg load. Heavier loads require either a larger contact area (leading to more deflection) or higher tyre pressures. Typically, larger contact areas are associated with larger tyres. Industry standards provide guidance on these specifications.
Road Surface Friction: The ability of vehicles to accelerate, decelerate, and navigate corners relies heavily on the friction between the tyres and the road. Tire tread designs are crucial for adapting to various weather conditions—whether dry, wet, snowy, or icy. While racing tyres or worn tyres may perform well on dry roads, they can struggle in wet conditions due to hydroplaning[1]. Effective tread designs allow water to escape from the tyre’s contact area to reduce hydroplaning risk, balancing the sometimes conflicting needs for good dry traction, minimal wear, and low noise.
[1] Hydroplaning occurs when a vehicle’s tyres lose contact with the road due to water, causing a loss of traction and control. Factors include water depth, tire condition, speed, and road surface. To reduce the risk, drive at lower speeds in wet conditions and ensure tyres are in good condition.
Absorption of Road Irregularities: One of the key advantages of pneumatic tyres is their ability to absorb shocks and irregularities from the road. Tyres function like a spring and damper system, effectively cushioning impacts and enhancing ride comfort across diverse driving conditions.
Criticality & Importance of Pneumatic Tires
The introduction of horseless carriages represented a major technological advancement in transportation. However, early models were fitted with rigid wood or metal tyres, which lacked the flexibility and traction necessary for agile maneuvering. These primitive tires struggled to generate enough lateral force, making turns difficult and possible only at slow speeds. As a result, journeys were often bone-jarring, with rigid tires providing little shock absorption, leading to discomfort for both passengers and drivers. Pneumatic tires have become essential for vehicles, particularly in enabling smooth and efficient turns at higher speeds. Over a century and a half ago, horse-drawn carts dominated the roads, where navigating corners relied heavily on the pulling power of the horses. While horses could guide carts around bends, the process was laborious and limited to slow speeds, hindering overall efficiency. The advent of pneumatic tires transformed the driving experience, significantly enhancing maneuverability and ride comfort. With air-filled rubber tires, vehicles could smoothly navigate corners at higher speeds, dramatically improving handling and performance. This innovation not only made automobiles more practical but also reshaped the landscape of transportation, paving the way for modern vehicles that can execute swift and agile maneuvers.
Basic Variants & Details Of Modern Tires
Head
Diagonal (Bias) Tires
Belted Bias Tires
Radial Tires
Details
These tires have body ply cords arranged at angles less than 90º to the tread centerline, extending from bead to bead.
These tires are bias tires reinforced with belts in the tread area. These belts limit the tire carcass’s expansion in the circumferential direction, enhancing tread strength and stability.
These tires have body ply cords running radially from bead to bead, usually at 90º to the tread centerline. They feature two or more belts placed diagonally in the tread for added strength and stability.
Common Applications
Commonly used in tractors and other farming machinery, Off-Road Vehicles, Classic Cars, Light Trucks, Trailer Tires & Motorcycles.
Commonly used in Passenger Cars, Light Trucks and SUVs, Off-Road Vehicles, Classic Cars, Trailers & Motorcycles
Commonly used is Passenger Cars, Light Trucks and SUVs, Commercial Vehicles, Motorcycles, High-Performance Vehicles, Agricultural Equipment, Construction and Off-Road Vehicles
Advantages
Durability: Their construction is robust, making them resistant to cuts and punctures, which is beneficial for off-road and heavy-duty applications.
Cost-Effective: Typically, bias tires are less expensive than radial tires, providing a budget-friendly option for various vehicles.
Good Traction: They often offer excellent traction on soft or loose surfaces, making them suitable for agricultural and off-road use.
Stable Handling at Low Speeds: Diagonal tires can provide stable handling and control, particularly at lower speeds, which is useful for certain applications.
Flexibility: Their design allows for more flex under load, which can enhance ride comfort on uneven surfaces. These advantages make diagonal (bias) tires a viable choice for specific vehicles and operating conditions.
Improved Durability: The added belts provide extra strength, making them more resistant to punctures and impacts.
Better Load Carrying Capacity: They can support heavier loads, which is beneficial for trucks and trailers.
Cost-Effectiveness: Generally, they tend to be less expensive than radial tires, making them a budget-friendly option for certain applications.
Stability at Low Speeds: Their design can provide good stability and handling at lower speeds, making them suitable for specific uses.
Good Traction on Uneven Surfaces: They often perform well on rough or uneven terrain, which is advantageous for off-road applications.
These characteristics make belted bias tires a suitable choice for specific vehicles and conditions.
Improved Fuel Efficiency: Their lower rolling resistance helps reduce fuel consumption, making them more economical for daily driving.
Better Traction: Radial tires provide superior traction on wet and dry surfaces, enhancing overall handling and safety.
Longer Tread Life: They typically exhibit more even tread wear, resulting in a longer lifespan compared to bias tires.
Enhanced Comfort: The flexible sidewalls allow for better shock absorption, providing a smoother ride.
Stability at High Speeds: Radial tires maintain stability and handling at higher speeds, making them suitable for modern vehicles.
Improved Heat Dissipation: Their design helps dissipate heat more effectively, reducing the risk of blowouts and improving performance.
These benefits make radial tires a popular choice for a wide range of vehicles.
Disadvantages
Less Flexibility: While they can flex under load, they do not offer the same level of performance and comfort as radial tires on smoother surfaces.
These disadvantages can limit their suitability for modern passenger vehicles and high-speed applications.
Poor Fuel Efficiency: They typically have higher rolling resistance compared to radial tires, which can lead to increased fuel consumption.
Heat Buildup: Bias tires can generate more heat under high speeds and heavy loads, potentially affecting performance and longevity.
Uneven Wear: They may experience uneven tread wear, which can reduce their lifespan and necessitate more frequent replacements.
Limited High-Speed Performance: Bias tires are generally not designed for high-speed applications, resulting in less stability and handling compared to radial tires.
Less Flexibility: Compared to radial tires, they are generally less flexible, which can affect ride comfort.
Heat Buildup: They may generate more heat under high speeds or heavy loads, leading to potential performance issues.
Shorter Tread Life: The tread wear may be uneven, resulting in a shorter lifespan compared to radial tires.
Reduced Traction: They can offer less traction in wet or slippery conditions due to their design.
Higher Rolling Resistance: They typically have higher rolling resistance, which can impact fuel efficiency. These factors may limit their suitability for certain modern applications compared to radial tires.
Higher Initial Cost: They are generally more expensive to purchase compared to bias tires.
Complexity in Repair: Repairing punctures or damage can be more complicated and costly than with bias tires.
Less Load Capacity in Some Cases: While they perform well under normal conditions, they may not always handle extremely heavy loads as effectively as bias tires.
Susceptibility to Sidewall Damage: The flexible sidewalls can be more prone to damage from impacts or curbing.
Not Ideal for All Applications: Radial tires may not perform as well in specific off-road or heavy-duty situations where bias tires excel.
These factors can influence the choice of tire type based on specific vehicle needs and driving conditions.
Basic Structure of Tires
A modern pneumatic tire is a sophisticated composite structure designed for optimal performance and durability. It comprises strong yet lightweight polymer fibers intricately woven into a matrix of viscoelastic rubber polymers. This combination provides both resilience and flexibility, allowing the tire to absorb shocks and maintain contact with the road. These components are meticulously bonded together using specialized adhesives, culminating in a lightweight, circular framework known as the carcass. This design not only enhances structural integrity but also ensures that the tire can withstand varying loads and pressures. Surrounding the carcass is a flat band of rubber, heat- and pressure-bonded to create the tread—the part of the tire that makes direct contact with the road. The tread is designed with specific patterns to optimize traction and improve handling in various conditions, whether it’s wet, dry, or uneven surfaces. To further enhance performance, the carcass of a radial tire is reinforced with belts made of polymer threads or steel wires, which provide additional strength and stability. These belts help distribute forces evenly across the tire, reducing the risk of deformation during operation.
Connecting the tread to the wheel is a relatively thin sidewall, which houses steel cables in the bead area that secure the tire firmly onto the wheel. This connection is crucial for maintaining the tire’s shape and performance under load. Overall, the pneumatic tire represents a remarkable blend of engineering and material science. It is a durable and cost-effective solution that enables fast, convenient, and safe personal transportation. By facilitating mobility, pneumatic tires contribute significantly to travel independence and support a vast, flexible network for overland freight delivery, shaping the way goods and people move across distances.
To enhance the structural integrity of the tire, polymer threads or steel wires are strategically integrated into the carcass, significantly boosting its durability and stability. A relatively slender sidewall connects the tread to the steel cables in the bead area, providing essential support and flexibility. These steel cables firmly clamp the tire onto the wheel, ensuring a stable and reliable connection for optimal performance.
The pneumatic tire is a resilient and cost-effective invention that facilitates fast, convenient, and safe personal transportation. Its versatility fosters complete travel independence and supports the development of a vast and adaptable network for overland freight delivery, making it a cornerstone of modern transportation systems. Pneumatic tires are utilized across a wide range of vehicles, from vehicles and trucks to earthmovers and airplanes.
These tires are crucial for vehicle performance, offering traction, braking, steering, and load support. Filled with air, they create a flexible cushion between the vehicle and the road, smoothing out shocks and enhancing ride quality for a more comfortable driving experience. This combination of functionality and comfort makes pneumatic tires an indispensable component of our daily transportation.
The Tire-Road Interfaces
Tires are among the most complex structures in automotive design, comprising various rubber compounds and combinations of rubberized fabrics or cords made from materials like steel and textiles. These reinforcement elements, known as plies, are strategically embedded in the rubber at specific orientations to enhance strength and durability. The outer surface of a tire features a carefully designed tread pattern, often referred to as the tire profile. This tread design plays a crucial role in channeling water away from the contact area during wet conditions, improving grip depending on road surfaces. It ensures optimal contact between the tire and the road, facilitating the transfer of dynamic forces essential for effective traction.
Each tire has unique structural and geometrical design parameters that influence its properties and, consequently, vehicle performance. Vehicle manufacturers set specific performance requirements that tire manufacturers must meet, which can include aspects like traction during acceleration and braking, stability while cornering, and energy efficiency (low rolling resistance) during operation.
The interface between the tire and the road, along with the forces and dynamics involved when the tire is in motion, plays a vital role in overall vehicle dynamics. Understanding these interactions is essential for optimizing tire performance and enhancing the driving experience.
One significant advantage of rubber tires is their impact on vehicle turning capabilities. Historically, vehicles could not effectively make turns at speeds above a crawl, even with the presence of differentials. Horse-drawn carts, for example, relied on the pulling force of the horses to navigate corners, often without the benefit of traditional axles. The rigid wooden or metal tires used on early horseless carriages produced only minimal lateral force, which restricted turning to very low speeds and resulted in a bone-jarring ride. In contrast, modern rubber tires provide the flexibility and traction needed for safe and efficient turns at higher speeds, greatly enhancing vehicle performance and comfort.
Tires & Load Carrying
The load-carrying capacity of tires is vital for the performance and safety of automobiles. Tires are engineered to support the vehicle’s weight, including passengers and cargo, while providing stability and traction across various surfaces. A well-designed tire evenly distributes this load, which minimizes wear and maximizes road contact for better grip. This is especially important during acceleration, braking, and cornering, where the tire must perform optimally under different conditions. Moreover, tires are built to absorb shocks and vibrations from the road, enhancing ride comfort and protecting the vehicle’s suspension system. Ultimately, the efficiency with which tires carry loads directly influences fuel economy, handling, and the longevity of both the tires and the vehicle.
It’s also important to note that the internal pressure of a pneumatic tire rises in proportion to the load it carries. The pressure within the tire’s air chamber is evenly distributed across the contact surface with the road, correlating to the total weight divided by the number of wheels. For instance, a 1,000 kg vehicle evenly distributed over four wheels would exert 250 kg on each tire. When properly inflated, the air cushion effectively supports this load, maintaining equilibrium. However, factors like heat generated from friction and the flattening of the tread can increase internal tire pressure.
On smooth roads, this pressure remains relatively stable, as the tire’s primary role is to flex the rubber in its sidewalls. While this bending leads to some energy loss, it also reduces impact forces. Despite the constant movement of air within the tire, the rapid expansion and compression during rotation largely counteract this energy loss. On rough surfaces, increased compression in air-filled tires may occur due to obstacles, but the quick expansion helps dissipate heat, balancing these effects.
When it comes to speed, pneumatic tires hold an advantage over metal ones due to the principle of least resistance. This is evident since no road is perfectly smooth; even on an ideally smooth surface, pneumatic tires outperform metal tires thanks to their lower friction.
Another factor enhancing the speed advantage of pneumatic tires is their ability to lower the roadbed grade. While this may seem minor, the layer of dust on any road surface significantly influences compression dynamics. Solid tires continuously compress this dust layer, gradually raising the grade—albeit slightly and consistently—especially noticeable at moderate speeds. In contrast, pneumatic tires compress more easily, distributing their weight over a larger area at the point of contact, which effectively lowers the grade. This phenomenon can be likened to the difference between steel and iron rails; steel requires 25% less force to support a ton of weight due to its hardness. Even if the depression of the rails isn’t visible, it is still a reality. Similarly, when navigating smooth or hard surfaces, tires tend to sink into the crevices between stones, adhering to the same principle. Theoretically, pneumatic tires are nearly perfect due to their multiple advantages. While spring wheels are considered alternatives, the ultimate solution lied in developing a puncture-proof, finely engineered air-confining fabric. Such an innovation would have solidified the supremacy of pneumatic tires, exceedingly even the most ambitious theoretical claims.
Tires & Turning
A tire is an elastic structure made of “rubber and string,” as some of the tire guys say, but that simplification is deceiving. An elastic material such as rubber yields to an external force, resists movement with an opposing force, and recovers when the external force is removed. Steel is another highly elastic material. This elastic characteristic of a tire allows the tire to be pointed in a direction different from the direction the vehicle is headed. This means the leading edge of the tread contacts the ground slightly to one side of the rest of the contact patch. As the tire rolls, each small increment of tread rubber coming onto the road sits down another small distance toward the direction the tire is pointed. As the vehicle’s weight comes onto these small increments, they stick to the road. The tread is now pulling the rest of the tire and generating forces that go through the wheel and the suspension to turn the vehicle. The force needed to change the vehicle’s path is generated by the tire and is called lateral force or side force.
To better understand vehicular turning and in turn the slip angle, we can think of a person walking along a circular path. As the person walks, he changes direction gradually, turning his foot at a small angle with each step. When the heel of his foot hits the ground, the rest of that foot follows in the new direction. As weight shifts onto this foot, it points toward the new heading, while the second foot is till pointing the older direction. This process continues with each step, causing the walker to trace an arc. Similarly, when a tire receives steering input, each small increment of tread that contacts the road also shifts slightly toward a new direction. As long as the steering input remains constant, each section of tread makes contact with the road at a slight angle, while the rest of the tire continues to align with the old direction. However, that part of the tire will eventually rotate back into contact with the road, resulting in a change of heading for both the tire and the vehicle. Additionally, as the tire rolls through the contact patch, it deforms and then recovers as the vehicle lifts off that section. The force needed to create this deformation generates the lateral force that helps change the vehicle’s path. Now, consider the rear tires. When the front tires respond to steering with a slip angle, they generate lateral forces that help steer the front of the vehicle in a new direction. If the rear tires were free to swivel, the back of the vehicle would slide outward from the turn. However, since the rear tires are fixed, they create their own slip angles and lateral forces that help stabilize the vehicle’s movement.
Typically, when a vehicle travels in a straight line, the wheel’s heading direction aligns with its travel direction, meaning that the wheel’s rotational plane and travel direction coincide. However, during lateral or “yaw motion[1],” the travel direction may deviate from this rotational plane. In forward motion, the wheel generates traction to propel the vehicle and experiences braking force during deceleration, along with constant “rolling resistance[2]”.
When a vehicle turns a corner, it follows an arc that represents a segment of a circle. The radius of this arc can change depending on the turning angle, and there are two types of turning radii: the “Curb-to-Curb Turning Radius[3]” and the “Wall-to-Wall Turning Radius[4].” At any given moment, the vehicle is following a specific arc path. To maintain this path, the vehicle must accelerate toward the “center of the arc[5]”. This requires a force, as the vehicle has mass (weight), and the tires manage these forces.
The force generated by the tires during a turn is known as “cornering force[6],” which can also be referred to as “lateral force,” “side force,” or simply “grip.” Additionally, during “cornering[7]”, the vehicle may experience “pitch[8]”, which is the forward or backward tilt of the vehicle’s body. This can occur as weight shifts from the rear tires to the front tires during braking or from the inside tires to the outside tires while turning.
The accompanying illustrations detail the various forces acting on the tires while turning and provide insights into the mechanics of cornering. Understanding these dynamics, including pitch, is essential for optimizing vehicle control and performance during maneuvers.
[1] Yaw Is the Rotation Of A Vehicle About The Vertical Axis
[2] Rolling Resistance Is The Force That Opposes The Motion Of A Rolling Tire As It Moves Along A Surface. It Is Primarily Caused By The Deformation Of The Tire As It Rolls. When A Tire Makes Contact With The Ground, It Compresses Slightly, And This Deformation Leads To Energy Loss Due To Internal Friction Within The Tire Material.
[3] Curb To Curb Turning Radius Of The Smallest Circle Around Which The Vehicle’s Tires Can Turn. This Measure Assumes A Curb Height Of 9 Inches.
[4] Wall To Wall Turning Radius Of The Smallest Circle Around Which The Vehicle’s Tires Can Turn. This Measure Takes Into Account Any Front Overhang Due To Chassis, Bumper Extensions And Or Aerial Devices.
[5] Point Around Which The Vehicle Is Turning When Navigating A Curve
[6] The Lateral Force Exerted By A Tire On The Road Surface When A Vehicle Is Turning. This Force Is Essential For Maintaining The Vehicle’s Path During A Turn
[7]Cornering Refers To The Process Of Navigating A Turn Or Bend In A Roadway.
[8] Pitch Is The Forward Or Backward Tilt Of A Vehicle’s Body As It Maneuvers Through A Turn
The accompanying illustrations detail the various forces acting on the tires while turning and provide insights into the mechanics of cornering. Understanding these dynamics, including pitch, is essential for optimizing vehicle control and performance during maneuvers.
In scenarios where the wheel experiences side slip, a force perpendicular to its rotation plane emerges, acting as a reactive force against side slip when the wheel incurs a side-slip angle. Termed as the “lateral force[1]”, this plays a crucial role in enabling the vehicle’s independent motion. When the side-slip angle is minimal, this force is similar to the cornering force. This phenomenon is similar to the lift force in fluid dynamics, acting on a body moving through a fluid at an angle of attack. Various types of wheels generate such forces when subjected to side slip. Comparing pneumatic, solid-rubber, and iron wheels at small side-slip angles, it’s evident that the magnitude of this force varies significantly based on the wheel type. Notably, the maximum force achievable with an iron wheel is less than one-third of that produced by a rubber tire wheel. Pneumatic tires, in particular, generate a substantially larger force compared to solid-rubber tires.
[1] When a vehicle turns, lateral forces come into play due to the change in direction. These forces act perpendicular to the vehicle’s path and are essential for maintaining stability and control during the turn.
For optimal vehicle maneuverability, maximizing the force generated by a wheel experiencing side slip is essential. Hence, vehicles designed for unrestricted motion are typically equipped with pneumatic tires. These tires serve not only for a smoother ride but also for enhancing vehicle handling through the availability of lateral forces.
Anatomy Of Modern Age Tires
Tire labelling provides essential information about the specifications, performance, and safety of tires. Here’s a breakdown of what you might find on a tire label:
1. Tread: Ensures High Mileage, Good Road Grip and Water Expulsion
2. Jointless Cap Plies: Enable High Speeds
3. Steel-Cord Belt Plies: Optimize Directional Stability and Rolling Resistance
4. Textile Cord Ply: Controls Internal Pressure and Maintains the Tire’s Shape
5. Inner Liner: Makes The Tire Airtight
6. Side Wall: Protects From External Damage
7. Bead Reinforcement: Promotes Directional Stability and Precise Steering Response
Tire labelling provides essential information about the specifications, performance, and safety of tires. Here’s a breakdown of what you might find on a tire label:
A. Decoding P215/65R15 95H Label on Tire
P: Vehicle Type: Passenger vehicle (this may also be absent; if there’s no prefix, it’s assumed to be a passenger tire)/ LT: Light Truck/ T: Temporary spare tire
215: Tire Width: The width of the tire in millimeters, measured from sidewall to sidewall.
65: Aspect Ratio: The height of the sidewall as a percentage of the tire width. In this case, the sidewall height is 65% of 215 mm.
R: Construction Type: Radial construction (most common today)/ D: Diagonal or bias ply construction
15: Wheel Diameter: The diameter of the wheel (rim) in inches that the tire is designed to fit.
95H: Load Index and Speed Rating:
i. Load Index: Indicates the maximum weight the tire can support. For example, a load index of 95 means the tire can carry up to 690 kg.
ii. Speed Rating: Shows the maximum speed the tire can safely sustain. For example, a rating of “H” means it can handle speeds up to 210 km/h.
Tire Ply Rating: Often indicated in letters (like C, D, or E) for light truck tires, representing the tire’s strength.
Treadwear Grade: A numerical rating that indicates the expected tread life compared to a reference tire. A grade of 300 means it should last three times longer than the reference tire.
Traction Grade: Indicates how well the tire stops on wet pavement, rated from AA (best) to C (worst).
Temperature Grade: Reflects the tire’s ability to dissipate heat, rated from A (highest) to C (lowest).
B. DOT Code: This indicates that the tire meets U.S. Department of Transportation standards. The last four digits denote the week and year of manufacture (e.g., 2319 means the tire was made in the 23rd week of 2019).
C. Tire Pressure Recommendations: Specifies the recommended inflation pressure for optimal performance and safety, usually found on the tire label itself or in the vehicle’s owner manual.
D. Manufacturing Information: May include details about the tire manufacturer, model name, and country of origin.
E. Special Features: Some tires may indicate special technologies, such as run-flat capabilities, eco-friendliness, or all-season performance.
1. Manufacturer (Trademark or Logo)
2. Product Name
3. Size Designation 205 = Tire Width In Mm 55 = Height-To-Width Ratio In Percent R = Radial Construction 16 = Rim Diameter In Inches (Code)
4. 91 = Load Index/ V = Speed Index
5. Tubeless Radial Tire
6. The Sidewall Is Marked with a Circle Containing An “E” And the Number Of The Country Of Homologation. This Marking Is Followed by a Multi-Digit Homologation Number, e. g. E4 e4 (4 = Netherlands)
7. Manufacturer’s Code: Tire Factory, Tire Size and Type Date of Manufacture (Week/Year) 2013 Means The 20th Week Of 2013
8. T.W.I.: Tread Wear Indicator.
9. Country Of Manufacture
Abbreviations: DOT = U.S. Department of Transportation/ ETRTO = European Tire and Rim Technical Organization, Brussels/ ECE = Economic Commission for Europe (UN institution in Geneva)/ FMVSS = Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (U.S. safety code)
All other information applies to countries outside Europe:
10. Department of Transportation (U.S.A. department which oversees tire safety standards)
11. Max. Load Rating 615 kg per wheel.
12. Tread: beneath which there are 4 plies (1 polyester ply, 2 steel belt plies, 1 polyamide ply) Sidewall: the tire casing consists of 1 polyester ply
13. U.S. limit for max. inflation pressure 51 psi (1 bar = 14.5 psi)
Information for consumers based on comparison values with standard reference tyres (standardized test procedures)
14. Treadwear: relative life expectancy of the tire based on standard U.S. testing (as % of the value for the reference tire)
15. Traction: A, B or C = wet braking capability of the tire
16. Temperature: A, B or C = temperature stability of the tire at higher test speeds. C is sufficient to meet U.S. statutory requirements
The first pneumatic tires had a smooth tread with no pattern. As automobile speeds increased, handling and safety issues arose, leading to the introduction of tread patterns in 1904. These patterns have since been refined with advanced tread block designs and siping techniques. Today, smooth-tread tires, known as “slicks,” are mainly used in motor racing, while public road tires must have tread patterns to channel water away and maintain road contact in wet conditions. Tread patterns, especially on winter tires, improve grip and traction. When driving at high speeds on wet roads, water can accumulate between the tire and the surface, risking aquaplaning and loss of steering control. Adequate tread depth is crucial, as worn tires can increase the risk of accidents even at lower speeds.
Tires are essential to vehicle safety and performance, yet they often receive insufficient attention. Proper tire tread is vital for safety, fuel efficiency, and overall performance. While many people consider seat belts and airbags the primary safety features, tires also play a critical role. A healthy tire ensures optimal grip on the road, reducing the risk of slipping or failing to stop when needed. Each tire is meticulously designed to maximize road safety and performance. There are few straight lines embedded on the tires which are the grooves in the tread patterns & which are designed to expel water in order to prevent hydroplaning and providing stability to the car in winter and monsoon conditions. In these grooves, you will find small shapes known as tread wear indicator. These are placed to indicate the legal wear out of your tires. If after a long usage, you find that the tire tread depth is perpendicular to the direction of the indicator, it’s time to replace your car tires.
Tyres have tread across their entire circumference. Tread depth measurements must be taken in the main grooves which feature TWIs[1] on modern tyres. In most European countries the law specifies a minimum tread depth of 1.6 mm; that’s when tyres have to be replaced. In order to ensure the tyres always offer best possible performance, summer tyres should be replaced when they reach a depth of 3 mm, and winter tyres when they reach a depth of 4 mm. Also, all four-wheel positions should be fitted with tyres of the same tread pattern design[2], and each axle, at least, should have tyres with the same tread depth. Regrooving of passenger car tyres is forbidden by law. The importance of maintaining sufficient tread depth is evident in the data: a worn tire with a tread depth of 1.6 mm can have a braking distance nearly twice as long as a new tire with approximately 8 mm of tread.
[1] TWI = Tread Wear Indicator, small raised bars across the main grooves. The bars have a height of 1.6 mm and gradually become level with the tread as the tire surface wears.
[2] One should avoid mixing summer and winter tyres in particular, which is even illegal in some European countries.
Evolution of Electric Vehicles (EVs) & Their Tires
As Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) are increasingly replaced by Electric Vehicles (EVs), tailpipe emissions are declining. However, EVs bring their own set of environmental challenges, particularly concerning pollution from “road-wear particles.” As tires wear down during use—especially with rapid acceleration, braking, and sharp turns—they release tiny particles into the environment. Even conservative driving contributes to this particulate pollution, and the issue is expected to worsen as more drivers switch to EVs. While EVs significantly reduce tailpipe emissions due to advanced filters and catalytic converters, tire wear presents a challenge that is not easily mitigated. Emissions Analytics reports that a single EV sheds an average of 18 kg of material annually, translating to approximately 6 million metric tons of pollution globally each year, primarily from wealthier countries with higher vehicle usage rates. EVs are typically 400-500 kg heavier than their gasoline or hybrid counterparts due to their batteries, which can weigh as much as a small car. This increased weight results in approximately 20% more tire wear. Studies indicate that Tesla’s Model Y generates 26% more particulate pollution than a comparable Kia hybrid. Additionally, the electric motors in EVs provide more aggressive torque, leading to faster acceleration and increased particulate emissions per mile compared to ICEVs. These particulates comprise a toxic mix of microplastics, volatile organic compounds, and other chemical additives that can contaminate air, soil, and waterways near roadways. Materials shed from tires settle along roads, where rain can wash them into water sources, while smaller particles linger in the air and can be inhaled. The tiniest particles, known as PM2.5, can enter the bloodstream directly. A 2017 study estimated that tire wear accounts for 5-10% of oceanic microplastic pollution and 3-7% of airborne PM2.5 pollution. One concerning tire additive, 6PPD, prevents rubber from cracking but reacts with ozone to form 6PPD-quinone, a compound linked to salmon die-offs in the Pacific Northwest. A 2022 study confirmed that this substance is harmful to various fish species and can accumulate in edible plants like lettuce. Furthermore, research in South China has detected both 6PPD and 6PPD-quinone in human urine samples, raising concerns about potential health impacts ranging from skin irritation to respiratory issues and neurological damage. As the market for EVs continues to grow, several challenges associated with tire performance and environmental impact must be addressed by manufacturers, consumers, and advocates. The weight of EVs leads to greater tire wear and a higher risk of blowouts, necessitating specialized tires that focus on durability, heat resistance, and improved tread designs. The delivery of torque in EVs also differs significantly from ICEVs; the instant torque can accelerate tire wear if tires are not engineered for such performance. Rolling resistance is another critical factor for EV tire performance. While lower rolling resistance tires can enhance an EV’s range by reducing energy consumption, achieving necessary grip and handling without sacrificing efficiency poses challenges for tire engineers.
Torque & Power Graphs Of EV & ICEV
Some may not realize but many electric vehicles or two-wheelers use EV-specific tires, that are different from normal road tires used ICEVs. While EVs and conventional vehicles share many similarities, there are crucial factors that require distinct tire designs for the two mobility formats. Here are five key differences between an EV-specific tire and regular vehicle tires.
1. Maximum Torque: One of the characteristics that set EVs apart is that they develop torque differently to a ICEVs. When an EV pulls away, its tires have to transfer all of the torque produced by its drive system to the road instantly. The increased loads and higher torque generated by an electric vehicle can increase tire wear.
2. Higher Load Capacity: EVs need tires that have been designed to handle the higher loads involved as they tend to have a different weight distribution compared to traditional ICEVs due to the placement of heavy battery packs that generally sit in the floorboard area. EV-specific tires are designed to accommodate this unique weight distribution, providing enhanced traction, stability, and handling. The tread patterns and sidewall construction are optimized to evenly distribute the vehicle’s weight and maintain consistent grip on the road surface, especially during cornering and braking maneuvers.
3. Rolling Resistance: One of the primary differences between an EV-specific tire and regular ICEV tires is their optimized rolling resistance. EV rely solely on electric power for propulsion, making energy efficiency a top priority. EV-specific tires are engineered to have minimum rolling resistance, reducing the amount of energy required to move the vehicle. These tires typically feature advanced tread patterns, specialized rubber compounds, and lower sidewall stiffness, allowing EVs to achieve maximum range and extend battery life.
4. Tire Noise: Another important consideration for EV manufacturers is minimizing cabin noise or Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) levels, as EV lack the typical engine noise associated with internal combustion engines. EV-specific tires are engineered to reduce rolling noise and provide a quieter driving experience. Manufacturers employ innovative tread block designs and noise-absorbing materials to mitigate vibrations and dampen noise levels, contributing to a more comfortable and serene ride.
5. Load-Bearing Capacity/Heavier Batteries: Most electric cars are around a third heavier than ICEVs equivalents; for instance, the EV variant of Tata Nexon, which is a midsegment car has its kerb weight ranging between 1,437 to 1,531 kg (depending upon battery capacity) while regular its ICE variant has kerb weight of only 1255 kg – which means EV model is about 20% heavier than its ICEV variant. Due to this weight of the battery packs, EV are often heavier than their conventional counterparts & hence EV specific tires are designed to handle this increased load, offering higher load-bearing capacities than ICEV tires. This ensures that the tires can safely support the higher weight of the vehicle, preventing premature wear, overheating, and other potential safety hazards.
6. Regenerative Braking Considerations: EVs commonly employ regenerative braking systems to recapture and convert kinetic energy into electrical energy, which is then stored in the battery. EV-specific tires are tailored to enhance the effectiveness of regenerative braking by offering improved grip and traction. The rubber compounds and tread patterns are optimized to provide excellent braking performance, allowing EVs to utilize regenerative braking to its fullest potential.
Labeling Of EV Tires
One of the biggest reasons why tyres for EVs differ from those for ICEVs is their weight. Battery packs are significantly heavier than traditional engines, making EVs overall heavier. This added weight is carried by the tyres, which must be specially adapted to handle the increased load. Without these modifications, tyres would wear out much faster, leading to more frequent replacements. As a result, EV tyres are built for higher load capacities and often reinforced, sometimes marked with HL (Heavy Load) designations. Tyres perform best when their tread maintains an optimal shape, relying on the correct air pressure for the weight they carry. Overloaded or under-inflated tyres can bulge, creating an improper footprint that increases tread wear. Under-inflation also decreases stiffness, compromising control, especially during cornering, and raises rolling resistance, leading to higher energy consumption. To address these issues, many EV tyres feature reinforced sidewalls and may operate at higher pressures. The sidewall, visible from the side of the vehicle, contains important markings like manufacturer details, size, and date. Reinforcing the sidewall helps maintain its shape and stiffness at the correct pressure. EV owners should pay careful attention when selecting tyres, looking beyond just size to include the load index, indicated by two or three digits (e.g., 95 or 108), which shows weight capacity, and the speed rating, represented by a letter (like ‘Y’), indicating the maximum safe speed.
Environmental & Disposal Challenges of Old Tires
Scrap tires pose significant environmental challenges due to their non-biodegradable nature and the hazardous materials they contain. When improperly disposed of, tires can accumulate in landfills or illegal dump sites, leading to extensive soil and water contamination. As they degrade, they leach harmful chemicals, including heavy metals like lead and zinc, as well as petroleum byproducts, which can infiltrate groundwater and harm aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, scrap tires create ideal breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other pests, increasing the risk of vector-borne diseases such as West Nile virus and Zika. Their ability to trap water raises public health concerns in nearby communities. When burned, scrap tires release toxic fumes and particulate matter, contributing to air quality issues and posing respiratory risks for surrounding populations. The combustion process can emit pollutants like dioxins and furans, which have serious health implications. The sheer volume of scrap tires—estimated in the billions globally—underscores the urgency of addressing this issue. Many regions suffer from inadequate recycling infrastructure, resulting in a significant percentage of tires ending up in landfills or as litter. To mitigate the environmental impact of discarded tires, sustainable practices such as recycling into crumb rubber for use in playground surfaces, asphalt, and construction materials are essential. Innovations in tire management, including improved collection systems and public awareness campaigns, can help divert tires from landfills and promote environmentally responsible disposal. Overall, tackling the challenges posed by scrap tires requires a comprehensive approach that combines effective waste management strategies, public policy, and community engagement to foster a circular economy for tire materials.
Recycling & Refurbishing Of Old & Discarded Tires
Tire recycling is a crucial aspect of managing the millions of tires discarded annually. In the United States alone, approximately 300 million tires are thrown away each year, while globally, over 1.6 billion new tires are generated, leading to around 1 billion waste tires. While in India, approximately 1.5 million tons of end-of-life tires (ELT) are generated annually. However, only about 450,000 tons of these tires are recycled by the formal sector. This significant gap highlights the need for improved tire recycling infrastructure and processes in the country. This situation presents significant environmental challenges. Effective recycling not only reduces landfill waste but also lessens the ecological footprint of tire production by reclaiming valuable materials. The tire recycling process involves several key steps. Initially, used tires are collected from various sources, including tire retailers, auto shops, and municipal collection events. Once gathered, the tires are transported to recycling facilities where they undergo sorting based on their condition and type. The next step is shredding, where tires are cut into smaller pieces, ranging from chips to fine granules. Following this, a separation process extracts valuable components: steel belts are removed using magnets, and textile fibers are extracted to ensure the rubber’s purity for further processing. Finally, the remaining rubber is ground down into crumb rubber, which is suitable for various applications. The applications of recycled tires are diverse and beneficial for both the environment and the economy. Crumb rubber can be mixed with asphalt to create more durable road surfaces that resist cracking, enhancing the longevity of infrastructure. Additionally, recycled rubber is used to create safe, shock-absorbent playground surfaces, minimizing injury risks for children. Other applications include gym mats, flooring tiles, and lightweight fill for construction projects, demonstrating the versatility of recycled tire materials. The environmental benefits of tire recycling are substantial. By recycling tires, millions can be diverted from landfills, reducing pollution and conserving natural resources. This process recovers valuable materials, decreasing the demand for virgin resources and lowering energy consumption and emissions associated with new material production. Furthermore, tires can serve as an alternative fuel source in industrial processes, replacing fossil fuels and contributing to energy recovery. However, tire recycling faces several challenges. The extensive design and complex materials used in tires make them indestructible, complicating the recycling process. Additionally, contamination from oils and chemicals poses challenges. In India, for instance, approximately 1.5 million tons of end-of-life tires (ELT) are generated annually, but only 450,000 tons are recycled by the formal sector. Moreover, the market demand for recycled rubber products can be inconsistent, impacting the economics of recycling operations. To address these challenges, innovations in recycling technologies are emerging. One notable method is pyrolysis, a thermal degradation process that treats rubber and used tires at high temperatures in the absence of oxygen. This technology breaks down tires into smaller molecular mass products, including:
1. Pyrolysis Oil: An alternative energy source that can be used as boiler fuel or for electric power generation.
2. Carbon Black: During pyrolysis (a thermal decomposition process), tires can be converted into carbon black, which is used as a reinforcing agent in new tires and other rubber products & can be utilized in various industries, including metallurgy, paint production, building materials, and the manufacture of fuel briquettes.
3. Gas: Generated during pyrolysis, this can be used to power the recycling system and contribute to electricity generation.
4. Metal Cord: Reclaimed for use in the metallurgical industry.
5. Refurbishing: Old tires can be repurposed into various by-products, contributing to sustainable practices and reducing environmental impact. Here are some common by-products derived from old tires:
Crumb Rubber: Ground rubber from tires is used in various applications, including playground surfaces, sports fields, and rubberized asphalt for roads.
Tire-Derived Fuel (TDF): Scrap tires can be processed into fuel for cement kilns and power plants, providing a high-energy alternative to traditional fossil fuels.
Rubber Mulch: Shredded tires are used as mulch in landscaping and gardening, offering benefits such as weed suppression and moisture retention.
Recycled Rubber Products: Old tires can be transformed into products like mats, floor tiles, and automotive parts, providing durable and weather-resistant materials.
Belt and Hose Manufacturing: Recycled rubber can be used to manufacture belts, hoses, and gaskets for various industrial applications.
Civil Engineering Applications: Tires can be used in construction projects, such as lightweight fill material for embankments or sound barriers.
Adhesives and Sealants: Processed rubber from old tires can be incorporated into adhesives, sealants, and coatings.
By such recycling & refurbishing of old tires the environmental footprint of scrap tires can be reduced while providing valuable materials for various industries.
Epilogue: Future Of Tires
1. Airless Tires: Airless tires, also known as non-pneumatic tires (NPT) or flat-free tires, do not rely on air pressure for support. They are commonly used on small vehicles such as ride-on lawn mowers and motorized golf carts, as well as on heavy equipment in environments where punctures pose a significant risk. Closed-cell polyurethane foam tires are also available for bicycles and wheelchairs. The main advantage of airless tires is their immunity to flats, resulting in less frequent replacements. Heavy equipment equipped with these tires can handle heavier loads and perform better in rugged conditions. However, airless tires generally have higher rolling resistance and provide less suspension compared to traditional pneumatic tires. Additionally, managing heat buildup can be a challenge for airless tires used in heavy machinery. These tires are often constructed from compressed polymers or solid molded materials instead of air. While airless tires are gaining popularity, they are less favored by hardcore off-road enthusiasts, particularly at speeds exceeding 80 km/h (50 mph), where instability and vibrations can impact vehicle control and passenger comfort. Airless tire designs have evolved over the years. In 1938, J.V. Martin invented a safety tire made from hickory hoops encased in rubber, which could navigate over substantial obstacles. In 2005, Michelin introduced the “Tweel,” a tire and wheel combination designed to operate without air. Despite its advantages, the Tweel generates vibrations at high speeds, limiting its use to golf carts, ATVs, and skid steer vehicles. Michelin and GM have announced plans for a new airless tire for passenger vehicles, expected to launch in 2024. Resilient Technologies, in partnership with the University of Wisconsin–Madison, developed a “non-pneumatic tire” for the Humvee, and their Terrain armor tire became the first mass-produced airless tire after being acquired by Polaris. Bridgestone is developing the Air-Free Concept Tire, which can support up to 150 kg (330 lbs) per tire, while Hankook is working on the iFlex airless tire. Despite these advancements, many manufacturers, including Goodyear, anticipate that their airless tires will not be ready for road use until 2030 due to various limitations.
2. Orbis Wheel: The Orbis driven wheel represents an innovative advancement in tire technology, designed to enhance the performance and versatility of various vehicles, particularly electric and autonomous ones. Its unique structure improves traction, stability, and overall vehicle dynamics, making it suitable for applications such as robotics, heavy machinery, and passenger vehicles. One of the key features of Orbis driven wheels is their distinct geometry. Unlike traditional tires that rely on air pressure, Orbis wheels distribute weight evenly across their surface, enhancing grip and reducing the risk of punctures. This construction performs well in diverse terrains, from rugged off-road environments to urban settings. In terms of performance, Orbis wheels optimize energy efficiency by lowering rolling resistance. This is particularly beneficial for electric vehicles, as it extends battery life and range. The design also improves handling characteristics, giving drivers better control, especially in high-speed or challenging conditions. Furthermore, the potential for technology integration adds to the appeal of Orbis driven wheels. Equipped with sensors that monitor performance metrics like tire pressure and temperature, these wheels can facilitate proactive maintenance. In autonomous vehicles, such data enhances navigation systems and safety features, making the driving experience more reliable.
The implications extend beyond individual vehicles, as innovations like Orbis wheels contribute to greater sustainability in the automotive industry. By increasing the efficiency of electric vehicles, they help reduce environmental impact. In summary, the Orbis driven wheel merges innovative design with advanced performance capabilities, making it a promising option for the future of transportation. Its adaptability and efficiency could significantly shape a more sustainable mobility landscape, particularly as the industry moves towards electrification and autonomy.
3. REE Corner: REE corner technology offers a revolutionary perspective on vehicle design by reimagining the role of wheels in automotive engineering. Traditionally, wheels have been mere passive components, but with the REE corner concept, they become integral to the vehicle’s overall functionality. Each REE corner encompasses the wheel, electric motor, suspension, and braking systems in a compact unit, effectively transforming the wheel into a multifunctional hub. This integration not only enhances the vehicle’s performance by allowing for precise control and improved handling but also reduces weight, leading to greater energy efficiency. From a design standpoint, REE corners can accommodate various wheel sizes and types, allowing manufacturers to tailor vehicles to specific needs, whether for urban commuting or heavy-duty logistics.
Ref: REE-Investor-Presentation-May-2024.pdf
The flexibility of this modular approach means that different configurations can be quickly implemented, fostering rapid innovation and adaptation to changing market demands. Looking ahead, the evolution of REE corners could revolutionize urban mobility. By facilitating designs that allow for omnidirectional movement, vehicles could navigate tight spaces more effectively, enabling innovations like autonomous delivery drones or compact city taxis. In essence, REE corner technology redefines the wheel from a simple rotation device to a pivotal player in the future of smart, sustainable transportation.
4. Other Evolving Tire Technologies: The future of tire technology is evolving rapidly, driven by advancements aimed at improving safety, performance, sustainability, and adaptability. Here are some of the most promising new technologies for future tires:
Smart Tires: Equipped with embedded sensors, smart tires monitor in future will be able monitor key parameters of tires such as pressure, temperature, tread depth, and wear. This real-time data can enhance vehicle safety and performance by providing insights for proactive maintenance and improving fuel efficiency.
Self-Healing Tires: These tires will use materials that can repair minor punctures or cuts autonomously. Incorporating materials with self-healing properties, they will be able to maintain their integrity and extend their lifespan, reducing the need for frequent replacements.
Regenerative Tires: Some tire designs are being developed to generate energy as they rotate. This technology harnesses the kinetic energy from the tire’s movement, converting it into electrical energy to power vehicle systems or charge batteries.
Advanced Tread Designs: Future tires will feature innovative tread patterns and materials that enhance grip, especially in wet or icy conditions. Developments in tread block geometry and fine siping techniques can improve water displacement and traction.
Sustainable Materials: The use of renewable and recycled materials is becoming a priority. Biodegradable rubbers and eco-friendly composites are being explored to reduce the environmental impact of tire production and disposal.
Variable Pressure Tires: These tires can adjust their pressure based on the driving conditions. This technology allows for lower pressures in off-road situations for better traction and higher pressures for improved fuel efficiency on highways.
3D-Printed Tires: As additive manufacturing advances, 3D-printed tires may become a reality. This could allow for customized designs tailored to specific vehicle requirements and reduced waste during production.
Enhanced Durability Technologies: Innovations in materials science are leading to stronger and more resilient tire compositions. These advancements can improve puncture resistance and overall tire longevity.
Connected Vehicle Integration: As vehicles become more connected, future tires may communicate with vehicle systems and infrastructure, enabling features like adaptive performance based on road conditions and predictive maintenance alerts.
These emerging technologies hold the potential to transform the tire industry, enhancing performance, safety, and sustainability while adapting to the changing landscape of transportation. As these innovations are developed and implemented, they will play a crucial role in the evolution of mobility in the years to come.
Oldest Wheel: This Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with The Axle Is The Oldest Wooden Wheel Yet Discovered Dating To The Copper Age (C. 3,130 BC).
Biggest & Heaviest Wheel: Letourneau L-2350, The Most Expensive & The Largest Wheels (4.5M In Height And 4 M In Dia, weighing ~6Tons) & Costing Whopping Rs. 50 Lakhs.
Bajaj Auto is expected to earn ₹13,300 crore in money in Q2FY25, according to a survey.
This is 23.41% more than the ₹10,777 crore they made last year.
The company thinks they will sell more bikes, with sales going up by 16% to 12.21 lakh units.
They also plan to earn more money from each bike they sell because of better products.
Several factors have contributed to the increase in revenue.
Some factors include growth in exports, expansion of premium two-wheeler segments, and price hikes implemented throughout the year.
This is what Motilal Oswal thinks about Bajaj Auto Q2 Results
“Domestic volumes grew 21% YoY, while export volumes rose 7% YoY. In domestic motorcycles, after many quarters, the mix is estimated to have deteriorated given higher sales of Chetak and Freedom 125 and a normalizing momentum for Pulsar 125,” Motilal Oswal said.
Pune-based company, Bajaj Auto is the world’s third-largest manufacturer of motorcycles. It is also the second-largest motorcycle manufacturer in India.
New Delhi, Oct 16: Two-wheelers saw strong double-digit growth (year-on-year) in the second quarter of this fiscal, while three-wheelers grew by high single-digits, as wholesale volume trends were mixed across segments, a report showed on Wednesday.
The original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) reporting mixed revenue growth and margins in the July-September period, with 2Ws outperforming other segments.
“But we are still long-term positive on passenger vehicles (PVs) given the sectoral tailwinds and see the weakness in commercial vehicles (CVs) as a temporary hiccup as we find the sector entering a new upcycle phase,” according to the report by BNP Paribas India.
PV volume marginally declined and CV volume was also weak, likely hurt by the prolonged monsoon and slowdown in infrastructure activities, with low fleet utilisation.
HMSI (Honda Motorcycle) gained the most market share (retail) in 2Ws, while HMCL (Hero MotoCorp Ltd) lost the most in Q2 FY25. In PVs, Mahindra and Mahindra gained the most market share, while Maruti Suzuki India Ltd and Hyundai lost.
“We expect high single-digit to strong double-digit YoY revenue growth for 2Ws, and flat to high single-digit revenue decline for PVs (except for Mahindra) in Q2 FY25,” the report mentioned.
Management commentary on high levels of PV inventory, rising discounts and festive demand outlook would be key to watch out for.
“That said, given the weakening auto demand globally (and recent guidance cut by global peers), we now see a risk of Jaguar Land Rover (JLR) cutting its FY25 guidance, eventually pushing next-year’s guidance by a year,” the report noted.
According to the latest SIAM data, domestic sales of passenger vehicles stood at 3,15,689 in September, compared to 3,16,908 units in September last year.
